Renaissance Clothing for Men

The medieval renaissance clothing for men consisted of long tunics that went down to the knees. This was a common medieval clothing for men. Kings and noblemen also wore these tunics as a part of renaissance festival clothing, during parties and ceremonies. The Germans were the ones who introduced the ideas of pants, that caught on with others, as men had to travel long distances on horses and during cold climate, pants made a better clothing option than skirts. Tights were worn by noblemen under their tunics. They wore woven tights that were not very tight as knitting had not been invented until then. During winter, the men wore wool cloaks to protect themselves from the cold, winter winds. The medieval costumes for men included leather shoes, especially for those who could afford them. Men wore shoes with square toes, before or after 1300s it was changed to shoes with pointy toes. They even had a curve up at the toes to make them look a bit more fancy. There were many changes seen in the women's clothing and you can read about it in detail in the elaborate article on medieval clothing for women.

Madness, A Form Of Judicial Defense

For the past centuries, a big part of the western jurisdiction was represented by the concept that a civilized society must not punish a person that is incapable of controlling his impulses - that is of course from the judicial point of view.

In 1794, a British law-court sustained the idea that a man is not responsible for an act if he doesn’t know what he is doing, "not more than the savage animals". Nevertheless, the modern standards of legal responsibility are based on M’ Naghten’s decision, no. 1843. This rule states that a defendant can be considered innocent due to his madness only if he was so severely affected in that time that he had not been aware of what he was doing , or if he knew what he was doing he was not aware that is was a wrong thing to do. This rule had been adopted in the USA and the distinction between good and wrong had been the foundation for the majority of the decisions concerning judicial irresponsibility for almost a century. Some states have added the doctrine of the "irresistible impulse". By this it was stated the fact that some individuals might answer correctly when they are asked whether an act is good or wrong from the moral point of view, but they also might have been incapable of controlling their behavior at the crime time.

Furthermore, in the year 1970, a series of states and federal courts adopted " The Rule Of The American Institute of Law". This rule contained a new judicial definition of madness, which was more permissive. The content of the definition can be summarized by the idea that not every incapacity can eliminate responsibility. If an individual knows what he was doing but he doesn’t understand it, he cannot appreciate whether it was right or wrong, in this case he cannot be considered guilty and responsible for the act.

Medieval Clothing for Women

During the medieval period, people wore loose linen and wool tunics that were similar to loose baggy t-shirts. As the medieval ages progressed, clothing became more distinguished and men and women of different professions wore clothing different from each other. Men wore wool pants under the tunics. The old men, monks, kings and noblemen wore tunics that were long enough to touch the ground. The medieval costumes of women were different from the medieval costumes of men. Let us have a look at the medieval clothing for women and medieval renaissance clothing for women in detail. Know more on medieval clothing patterns.

Medieval Costumes of Women

The early medieval costumes of women consisted of 'kirtles'. These were tunics that were worn till the ankles. Shirts were worn over the tunics and when in public, women often topped the tunic with a shorter 'kirtle'. The noblewomen wore luxurious medieval clothing for women, than the less fortunate ones. Married women wore tight fitting caps and nets over their hair. They would were a 'bun' hairstyle on their heads and few would wear veils over their hair, that would be braided tightly or left to hang loosely. Let us see the medieval clothing for women in detail.

Feudalism and Manorialism

Feudalism vs manorialism, is analogous to the difference between the practice of a system and the economic and commercial aspects of that system. Simply put, manorialism can be considered as a subset of feudalism . Both these aspects are specifically understood as a mutual give-and-take relation between social classes, starting from the lowest class to the king.

The serfs worked on the fields and did all the hard labor like working for the upkeep of the manors and allied activities. In return, they were offered certain wages and protection by knights or the lords. The knights, who served the lords militarily for defending and gaining territories, in turn got rewards and titles from the feudal lords, who got that from the king. As mentioned before, they protected the serfdom too, which ensured the lords, loyalty and taxes from them. The vassals formed the slightly higher class, between the lords and the knights, who enlisted the services of the knights and provided them perks accordingly.

The lords provided lands to the knights and ensured their support to the kingdom. This was the most powerful and privileged class of the society, more dominant in Europe, than elsewhere. They received services and taxes from all the lower classes, in return for their confidence and rewards. The king, on whose behalf the lords provided lands and privileges, was the final authority, but became a mere titular head with all the prerogatives, in the later years of feudalism.

The economic aspect of feudalism in Europe, was more in focus for the relation between the lords and the vassals, which was the majority class. The life of a serf or a labor was tied to the manor or revolved around the manor. They were entitled to very few privileges, which were a discretion of the lord or the manorial house, they served. In return for their services, the lord offered them a 'chance' to lead independent lives, but at their mercy. They were also offered protection from invading powers and the right to earn their livelihood, by serving the manor and its occupants. This economic dependency was deeply ingrained in the rural society all over Europe. Thus, manorialism was a 'systematic hardship' imposed on the poor, helpless and the downtrodden people, who were subjected to frequent land grabbing by foreign invasion, slavery and other forms of economic hardship in the middle ages in Europe.

Sparta vs. Athens

The comparison between Sparta and Athens is a story of two cultures with drastic difference in the ideologies, societies, forms of governance and the basic way of life. While both these city states in Greece were geographically located close together, they varied greatly in almost all other aspects of life, both with clashing views on various subjects. Their brief unity against the Persian invasions was greatly overshadowed by the constant competition between these cultures for the leadership of the Hellenic world.

These two prominent historic cultures of Ancient Greece have contributed greatly to the ideals of the modern society in their own distinct ways. While Athens was one of the leading cities of Ancient Greece in the first millennium, having been inhabited for 3000 years, with its cultural and philosophical achievements laying the foundations of a new western civilization. On the other hand, the militaristic Sparta, famous as a martial power, foe of the Persian Empire, and eventual conqueror of Athens, was formed after the Dorian migration from the north. While the dumb, militaristic and machismo culture of Sparta was totally war driven, Athens was home to some of the most extraordinary accomplishments of philosophy, art, and science in human history. Here is a look at the some of the distinct differences in this Athens vs Sparta comparison list.

Remote Viewing Techniques

The adventurous nature of remote viewing makes it a very exciting paranormal phenomena that only a few may visualize. Remote viewing is one of the many ways of gathering information through extra-sensory perception. A remote viewer has an out of body experience. While having such an experience, the viewer is asked not to interfere with the surroundings. His bio-plasmic body moves out his physical body and travels to a predetermined location. The viewer tries to imbibe as much information about the surroundings as possible. In certain cases, remote viewing is also associated with relaxation and finding inner peace. Some remote viewers are known to have walked on the surface of the sun and traveled to the center of galaxy. Read more on what is out of body experience?

History of Remote Viewing Techniques

Results of technical remote viewing were so startling, that intelligence agencies around the world had no other choice but to notice this unconventional technique. Soon, the CIA and the military intelligence started exploring and developing various remote viewing techniques. Intelligence gathering through remote viewing techniques was extremely cost effective compared to traditional means. Their research, however, managed to develop techniques, that were simple enough to be attempted by civilians as well.

Any technique mentioned in any kind of remote viewing manual should only be practiced with an instructor present. However the existence of such manual is very unlikely. There are some professional institutes in the market which conduct remote viewing training. It is recommended that a new student should learn and experience remote viewing, at these institutes in a controlled environment.

Pledge of Allegiance Words

The Pledge of Allegiance was written in 1892 by Francis Bellamy who was a Baptist member and a Christian socialist. This was the year of the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America and celebrations for this day were being planned for years. Two individuals who were interested in making celebrations on this day grand were Francis Bellamy and James Upham. James Upham was associated with the Boston publishing firm that published "The Youth's Companion", which was a popular magazine of children in those time. He had conceived the National Public School Celebration of Columbus Day, which was an event to mark the 400th anniversary of the Columbus Day.

The Pledge of Allegiance was first published in the September 8th issue of the magazine under the title "The Pledge to the Flag", as a part of the event planned by Upham. After proclamation by President Harrison, the Pledge was used for the first time in public schools in America of 12th October, 1892. This set off the tradition of the Pledge of Allegiance being recited in Public Schools on a daily basis. Read more on history of the Pledge of Allegiance.

Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire or Persian Empire (550–330 BC) was the successor state of the Median Empire, ruling over significant portions of what would become Greater Iran. The Persian and the Median Empire taken together are also known as the Medo-Persian Empire, succeeding the Neo-Assyrian Empire. It was succeeded in turn by the Seleucid Empire. At the height of its power, the empire encompassed approximately 8 million km2.[1][2] The empire was forged by Cyrus the Great, and spanned three continents, including territories of Afghanistan and Pakistan, parts of Central Asia, Asia Minor, Thrace, much of the Black Sea coastal regions, Iraq, northern Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as Libya. It is noted in western history as the foe of the Greek city states during the Greco-Persian Wars, for freeing the Jews from their Babylonian captivity, and for instituting Aramaic as the empire's official language. It was invaded and conquered by Alexander the Great in 330 BC. In universal history the role of the Persian empire founded by Cyrus the Great lies in their very successful model for centralized administration and a government working to the advantage and profit of all.

Cradle of civilization

The earliest-known farming cultures in South Asia emerged in the hills of Balochistan, on the border between modern-day Pakistan and Iran. These semi-nomadic peoples domesticated wheat, barley, sheep, goat and cattle. Pottery was in use by the 6th millennium BC. The oldest granary yet found in this region was the Mehrgarh in the Indus Valley. Their settlement consisted of mud buildings that housed four internal subdivisions. Burials included elaborate goods such as baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles, pendants and occasionally animal sacrifices. Figurines and ornaments of sea shell, limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sandstone and polished copper have been found. By the 4th millennium BC, Technologies included stone and copper drills, updraft kilns, large pit kilns and copper melting crucibles. Button seals included geometric designs. By 4000 BC, a pre-Harappan culture emerged, with trade networks including lapis lazuli and other raw materials. The Indus civilization is known to have comprised two large cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, and more than 100 towns and villages, often of relatively small size. The two cities were perhaps originally about a mile square in overall dimensions, and their outstanding magnitude suggests political centralization, either in two large states or in a single great empire with alternative capitals. Or it may be that Harappa succeeded Mohenjo-daro, which is known to have been devastated more than once by exceptional floods [3]. The southern region of the civilization in Kathiawar and beyond appears to be of later origin than the major Indus sites. Villagers also grew numerous other crops, including peas, sesame seed, dates, and cotton. The Indus valley civilization is credited for a regular and consistent use of decimal fractions in a uniform system of ancient weights and measures.

Pakistan Rarely Part of India

At the close of Samudragupta’s triumphal career (4th century AD) his empire --- the greatest in India since the days of Asoka --- extended on the north to the base of the mountains, but did not include Kashmir…. Samudragupta did not attempt to carry his arms across the Sutlej or to dispute the authority of the Kushan Kings who continued to rule in and beyond the Indus basin." (Oxford History of India, By VA Smith).

"Harsha’s subjugation of upper India, excluding the punjab, but including Bihar and at least the greater part of Bengal, was completed in 612 AD." (Ibid)

"The Gurjara empire of Bhoja may be defined as, on the north, the foot of the mountains; on the northwest, the Sutlej; on the west the Hakra or the ‘lost-river’ forming the boundary of Sind." (Ibid).

"The rule of the Pratiharas had never extended across the Sutlej, and the history of the Punjab between the 7th and 10th centuries AD is extremely obscure. At some time, not recorded, a powerful kingdom had been formed, which extended from the mountains beyond the Indus, eastwards as far as the Hakra of lost-river, so that it comprised a large part of the Punjab, as well as probably northern Sind." (Ibid)

"Politically during the time when Hellenism in the south Asian sub-continent was decaying and the centuries afterward, the north-west remained separate from northern and central India. The Gupta empire, which at its height in the middle of the 4th century AD, and the empire of Harsha in the middle of the 7th century AD barely reached into the Punjab and included none of Sind." (Pakistan and Western Asia, by Norman Brown)

Faisal Mosque

The Faisal Mosque in Islamabad is the largest mosque in Pakistan and South Asia and the sixth largest mosque in the world. It was the largest mosque in the world from 1986 to 1993 when overtaken in size by the completion of the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca, Morocco. Subsequent expansions of the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) of Mecca and the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Prophet's Mosque) in Medina, Saudi Arabia during the 1990s relegated Faisal Mosque to fourth place in terms of size. Faisal Mosque is conceived as the National Mosque of Pakistan. It has a covered area of 5,000 m2 (54,000 sq ft)[citation needed] and has a capacity to accommodate approximately 300,000 worshippers (100,000 in its main prayer hall, courtyard and porticoes and another 200,000 in its adjoining grounds). Although its covered main prayer hall is smaller than that of the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca (the world's third largest mosque), Faisal Mosque has the third largest capacity of accommodating worshippers in its adjoining grounds after the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) of Mecca, the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Prophet's Mosque) in Medina.[1]. Each of the Mosque's four minarets are 80 m (260 ft) high (the tallest minarets in South Asia) and measure 10 x 10 m in circumference. The Faisal Mosque is named after the late King Faisal bin Abdul Aziz of Saudi Arabia, who supported and financed the project.The impetus for the mosque began in 1966 when the late King Faisal bin Abdul Aziz of Saudi Arabia supported the initiative of the Pakistani Government to build a national mosque in Islamabad during an official visit to Pakistan. In 1969, an international competition was held in which architects from 17 countries submitted 43 proposals. After four days of deliberation, Turkish architect Vedat Dalokay's design was chosen. Construction of the mosque began in 1976 by National Construction of Pakistan, led by Azim Borujerdi, and was funded by the government of Saudi Arabia, at a cost of over 130 million Saudi riyals (approximately 120 million USD today). King Faisal bin Abdul Aziz was instrumental in the funding, and both the mosque and the road leading to it were named after him after his assassination in 1975. The mosque was completed in 1986, and used to house the International Islamic University. Many conservative Muslims criticised the design at first for its non-conventional design and lack of the traditional dome structure, but virtually all criticism was eventually silenced by the mosque's scale, form, and setting against the Margalla Hills upon completion.

Badshahi Mosque

The Badshahi Mosque (Punjabi, Urdu: بادشاھی مسجد), or the 'Emperor's Mosque', in Lahore is the second largest mosque in Pakistan and South Asia and the fifth largest mosque in the world. It is Lahore's most famous landmark and a major tourist attraction epitomising the beauty, passion and grandeur of the Mughal era. Capable of accommodating 10,000 worshippers in its main prayer hall and 100,000 in its courtyard and porticoes, it remained the largest mosque in the world from 1673 to 1986 (a period of 313 years), when overtaken in size by the completion of the Faisal Mosque in Islamabad. Today, it remains the second largest mosque in Pakistan and South Asia and the fifth largest mosque in the world after the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) of Mecca, the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Prophet's Mosque) in Medina, the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca and the Faisal Mosque in Islamabad. To appreciate its large size, the four minarets of the Badshahi Mosque are 13.9 ft (4.2 m) taller than those of the Taj Mahal and the main platform of the Taj Mahal can fit inside the 278,784 sq ft (25,899.9 m2) courtyard of the Badshahi Mosque, which is the largest mosque courtyard in the world

Samadhi of Ranjit Singh

The Samadhi of Ranjit Singh is the mausoleum of the Sikh ruler Maharaja Ranjit Singh. It is located near the Lahore Fort and Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan. Construction was started by his son, Kharak Singh on the spot where he was cremated, and was completed by his grandson, Duleep Singh in 1848.The tomb exmeplifies Sikh architecture, it is gilded fluted domes and cupolas and an ornate balustrade round the top. Ranjit Singh's ashes are contained in a marble urn in the shape of a lotus, sheltered under a marble pavilion inlaid with pietra dura, in the centre of the tomb. Other tiny urns contain the ashes of his four wives and seven concubines who threw themselves on his funeral pyre.These urns were removed from the marble pavilion and were replaced by a simple slab around 1999. This desecration of the mausoleum was part of the preparations for the Khalsa Tricentenary and the visit of Sikh dignitaries from India. The Samadhi was damaged by the earthquake in October 2005. In May 2006, following concerns about the state of the samadhi, the Indian Minister for Tourism and Culture, Ambika Soni wrote to Punjab Chief Minister Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi and expressed her concerns

THE TOMB OF SHAH RUKN-E-ALAM

The mausoleum of Shah Rukn-e-Alam is also situated on the fort mound. The Shaikh was the son of Pir Sadar-Al-Din Arif born at Multan on the 9^th of Friday Ramazan 649/26 November 1251. He was the grandson and successor of Shaikh Baha-Al-Din Zakariya.

Shaikh Rukn-i-Alam (Rukn-al-Din) died on the 7^th of Friday (735/3 Jamadial-Awwal, January 1335). He was buried in the mausoleum of his grandfather, according to his own will. After sometime, however, his coffin was transferred to the present mausoleum. It was constructed, according to a popular belief, by Ghiyas-al-Din Tughluq (1340-1350) during the days of his governorship of Depalpur, but was given by Feruz Shah Tughluq to the descendents of Shah Rukn-I-Alam for the latter’s burial. The mausoleum of Rukn-I-Alam has been admired by not only the travelers and chroniclers but also by the art-historians and archaeologist who wrote the architectural history of the subcontinent.

The tomb was built on octagon plan, 90 ft in diameter with walls which are 414 ft high and 13.3 ft thick. The mausoleum was constructed with burnt bricks and supported by timber framing, and decorated with tile faced bricks and wood beams. The whole structure is divided into three stories. Over the second story is a smaller Octagon, leaving a narrow3 passage all around the place, above which stands a hemispherical dome. As the tomb is standing on a high artificial mound, it is visible from about 45 kilometers. Most of its patterns are geometric-created by arranging the glazed tiles-and a living testimony to creative genius of their designers. The building is also decorated with some floral as well as calligraphic patterns. In the 1970s the mausoleum was thoroughly repaired and renovated by the Auqaf Department of the Punjab Government. The entire glittering glazed interior is the result of new tiles and brickwork done by the Kashigars of Multan. This clearly demonstrates the talents and dexterity of the local craftsmen.

THE HISTORICAL TOMBS

The history of Multan’s Muslim architecture begins with the Muslim conquest. Little is known about the architecture of Multan prior to the 11^th century, though elsewhere in Pakistan we can trace the genesis of Muslim architecture from the 8^th century A.D. During the 13^th and 14^th century, a new style of architecture was introduced for funerary memorials of the Muslims in and around Multan the style begin with the tomb of Baha-ud-din Zakariya and culminated in the mausoleum of Shah Rukn al-Din Rukn-I- Alam, which has been admired as "one the most splendid memorial ever erected in the honour of the dead.

These two mausoleums served as perfect models for the future architecture. The architects continued to imitate them for well over six hundred years. The popularity of the style did not lessen even when the more refined and gorgeous Mughal style of Rukn-e-Alam is the beautiful tomb of Sultan Ali Akbar at Suraji Miani near Multan, which was erected in the Mughal period (992/1585).

Some of the common features of all mausolea in Multan are their tapering walls, single dome and the glazed tile decoration on the exterior. Another widespread feature is a wooden canopy, over the main grace. Decorated with carving and grills, the ceiling of the canopy is always adorned with glazed tiles of different motifs. Occasionally the grills are made of marble, ornamented with beautiful geometric designs.

ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF PAKISTAN

Mohammed Ali Jinnah died in September 1948, within 13 months of independence. The leaders of the new Pakistan were mainly lawyers with a strong commitment to parliamentary government. They had supported Jinnah in his struggle against the Congress not so much because they desired an Islamic state but because they had come to regard the Congress as synonymous with Hindu domination. They had various degrees of personal commitment to Islam. To some it represented an ethic that might (or might not) be the basis of personal behaviour within a modern, democratic state. To others it represented a tradition, the framework within which their forefathers had ruled India. But there were also groups that subscribed to Islam as a total way of life, and these people were said to wish to establish Pakistan as a theocracy (a term they repudiated). The members of the old Constituent Assembly, elected at the end of 1945, assembled at Karachi, the new capital. Jinnah's lieutenant, Liaquat Ali Khan, inherited the task of drafting a constitution. Himself a moderate (he had entered politics via a landlord party), he subscribed to the parliamentary, democratic, secular state. But he was conscious that he possessed no local or regional power base. He was a muhajir ("refugee") from the United Provinces, the Indian heartland, whereas most of his colleagues and potential rivals drew support from their own people in Punjab or Bengal. Liaquat Ali Khan therefore deemed it necessary to gain the support of the religious spokesmen (the mullahs or, more properly, the ulama). He issued a resolution on the aims and objectives of the constitution, which began, "Sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to Allah Almighty alone" and went on to emphasize Islamic values. Hindu members of the old Constituent Assembly protested; Islamic states had traditionally distinguished between the Muslims, as full citizens, and dhimmis, nonbelievers who were denied certain rights and saddled with certain additional obligations.

History of Pakistan

The first known inhabitants of the modern-day Pakistan are believed to have been the Soanian - Homo erectus which setteled in the Soan Valley and Riwat almost 2 million years ago. Over the next several thousand years, the region would develop into various civilizations like Mehrgarh and the Indus Valley Civilization. Throughout its history, the region has also been apart of various Greek, Persian, Islamic and British empires. The region's ancient history also includes some of the oldest empires from the Indian Subcontinent[1] and some of its major civilizations.[2][3]. Modern-day Pakistan began with independence from British India on August 14, 1947.[4][5] The political history of eventual birth of the country began in the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which culminated in 90 years of direct rule by the British Crown and subsequently, spawned a successful freedom struggle led by the Indian National Congress and later by the All India Muslim League. The latter was founded in 1906 to protect Muslim interests and rose to popularity in the late 1930s amid fears of neglect and under-representation of Muslims in politics. On the 29 December 1930, Muhammad Iqbal called for an autonomous state in "northwestern India for Indian Muslims".[6] Muhammad Ali Jinnah espoused the Two Nation Theory and led the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution[7] of 1940, demanding the formation of an independent Pakistan. Pakistan became independent from British India as a Muslim-majority state with two wings - West Pakistan and East Pakistan. Independence witnessed unprecedented and prologed communal riots across India and Pakistan, eventually resulting in millions of Indian Muslims migrating to Pakistan and millions of Pakistan's Hindus and Sikhs migrating to India. Disputes arose over several princely states including Kashmir and Jammu whose ruler had illegally acceded to India following an invasion by Pashtun tribesmen from Pakistan. This led to the First Kashmir War in 1948 which ended in Pakistan administrating one-third of the state